Living Conditions and Arrangements

The habitats of a culture provide critical clues about their way of life.

Such locations were often situated on hills or near water bodies, believed to be inhabited by ancestral spirits. Recent discoveries show that sites where Bronze Age shrines were built were regarded as sacred for millennia prior. A notable example is the sacred spring at Blick Mead (circa 8000 BC), close to the later Stonehenge site (2900 BC).

Evidence suggests that ancient peoples often regarded certain natural features, such as hills, springs, and rivers, as magical.

Pryor, Francis. Scenes from Prehistoric Life (p. 53). Bloomsbury Publishing. Kindle Edition.

In a time when spirituality intertwined with daily life, the criteria for settlement locations differed significantly from later periods. Many ancient communities chose sites for their beauty and evocative qualities rather than for defense. Proximity to springs and rivers offered practical advantages, such as access to water and the wildlife dependent on these resources. As agriculture began to take root, fertile land near water sources became invaluable for cultivation.

A prime example is Çatalhöyük, a large settlement in present-day Turkey, recognized as one of the earliest proto-cities with a population of around 10,000, located along a river branch in an open plain. Their focus was not on fortification but rather on the area's attractiveness, existing peacefully for over a millennium.

Genomic studies reveal that early humans were conscious of avoiding inbreeding, often exchanging members with other groups. In the case of Çatalhöyük, the river served as a means for such exchanges.

Additionally, “this spatial separation must have marked two intermarrying kinship groups.” This could explain how such an early settlement achieved significant size. Çatalhöyük.

All dwellings were similar in size, lacking public buildings, indicating an absence of social hierarchy or centralized governance. This observation is supported by other evidence we will discuss shortly. The homes were uniformly arranged with plaster walls and ladders leading to rooftops, which connected to other structures.

Everyone had equal access to nutrition, suggesting an egalitarian society. In contrast, mummies from other ancient cultures indicate significant disparities in health and diet between elites and commoners, leading to observable differences in height and health.

Tools and Weapons

Stone tools and artifacts provide insights into the lifestyles and interactions of early humans.

The earliest tools, known as the Oldowan toolkit, included hammerstones for breaking seeds, nuts, and bones, as well as for shaping other stones into sharp points. Later tools included hand axes and spear points for hunting.

In various cultures, hand axes evolved into ceremonial items, often adorned and indicating the owner's status. Many show little wear, while others were cherished possessions of clan members, sometimes buried with their owners.

Despite the capability to create weapons, evidence of Stone Age warfare is scarce.

Many researchers posit that low population densities in most regions likely reduced violent conflicts. Warfare may have emerged later when settled agricultural societies developed economic systems based on agricultural products.

The evolution of tools and weapons is extensive, meriting its own in-depth exploration in future discussions.

Art and Pottery

Art and pottery serve as clear indicators of ancient lifestyles.

Artistic expressions, from cave paintings to decorative items, reveal current ways of living. Archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes remarked on the art of Crete before its conquest:

“Cretan men and women were surrounded by representations of a powerful goddess and a submissive male deity, reflecting societal attitudes.” She noted that the confidence of women and their societal roles were evident in their art and attire, contrasting sharply with later cultures that emphasized female seclusion.

Stone, Merlin. When God Was A Woman (p. 83). Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. Kindle Edition.

Until after World War II, archaeology often resembled grave robbery, with little emphasis on understanding the social structures of the peoples studied. In recent decades, a more scientific approach has emerged, integrating various fields to analyze findings.

Modern analysis encompasses biological and genomic data from human remains, trade evidence, and religious artifacts, offering a clearer understanding of the past.

For instance, findings of macaw eggshells and skeletal remains in the Southwestern U.S. illustrate their role as trade goods and objects of worship among prehistoric peoples.

Following the invasion of the Kurgan and Hittite warriors, who introduced a violent, patriarchal culture, there was a notable shift in artistic expression, moving from playful depictions to representations of conquest and oppression.

Religion and Burials

Burial practices often reveal much about a society’s beliefs and values.

In many tribal cultures, the removal of flesh is thought to signify the soul's journey to the afterlife. Some communities regard the process of excarnation as sufficient, leading to loose bones being found in refuse areas.

Pryor, Francis. Scenes from Prehistoric Life (p. 59). Kindle Edition.

The manner of burial can provide insights into societal structures. Kurgan chieftains were interred with their wives, horses, and weapons, while the “Ivory Man” tomb discovered in Spain in 2008 contained numerous exotic artifacts, including an African elephant tusk.

Recent analysis has shown that this tomb belonged to the “Ivory Lady,” a high-ranking female whose status was not hereditary but earned through hard work.

Innovative methods for sex determination using tooth enamel have revealed that many presumed male graves belonged to women, enhancing our understanding of gender roles in prehistoric societies.

Ethnoarchaeology

Rather than abstract explanations, I will present a quote about Neanderthals to illustrate what ethnoarchaeology can reveal about social structures.

Canadian ethnoarchaeologist Brian Hayden estimated a sustainable population of about 450-500 individuals, which would require interaction with multiple other bands. Analysis of Neanderthal DNA from Cueva del Sidrón, Spain, suggested a patrilocal residence pattern, while findings from Denisova Cave indicated significant inbreeding.

Given that most Neanderthal artifacts originated within a 5 km radius of their settlements, Hayden concluded that interactions between groups were likely infrequent, suggesting limited trade and social exchange.

As mentioned earlier, condensing this topic into a brief essay proved challenging, given the richness of what we know about ancient life. Naturally, there are gaps in knowledge and disagreements among experts.

However, much of the contention arises from conflicting narratives rather than objective interpretation of data.

The Smithsonian and many scholars agree that the first recorded war occurred about 10,000 years ago in Kenya. While earlier conflicts may have existed, they were likely isolated incidents rather than widespread societal acceptance of violence.

Otterbein concludes that evidence suggests widespread killing during the Upper Paleolithic, but drawing a direct line from killing to organized warfare remains speculative.

Despite the lack of clear evidence for social units beyond immediate family groups during the long span from 200,000 to 10,000 BCE, the assertion of warfare is called into question.

Numerous scientific disciplines are devoted to making informed deductions based on diverse data, yielding substantial insights into pre-historical life.

© Copyright Elle Beau 2023